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| The Trans-Saharan Trade Routes |
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| Written by Ana Casaca |
Posted on 18 November 2024 |
Reading Time 9 minutes |
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1. Introduction |
| When studying the history of trade and humankind, the literature draws attention to the Silk Road and its importance in fostering trade among individuals, businesses, and nations while contributing to the exchange of technological advancements and culture. However, other important trade routes existed; while playing a vital role in trade development, they are not so well known. This is the case of the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes. |
| The Sahara, the largest hot desert in the world, with approximately 9.2 million square kilometres, stretching from the Nile River to the Atlantic Ocean, covers much of North Africa, including parts of present-day Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan, and Tunisia. Such a geographical area offers a variety of landscapes, ranging from vast dunes to rocky plateaus, dry riverbeds, and salt flats. Due to these topographical characteristics, the Sahara is often seen as a barrier between North and Sub-Saharan Africa. However, it was in this inhospitable environment that the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes emerged (see Figure 1). |
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| Figure 1: Trade routes of the Western Sahara circa 1000–1500 |
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| Source: Aa77zz (2019) |
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| The Trans-Saharan Trade Routes considered the most active land-based trade network in Africa, was a network of routes that facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures across the vast Sahara Desert. They crossed over 600 miles of the Sahara Desert between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa, connecting the Mediterranean, North African, and Sub-Saharan African civilisations. The network operated as a relay system, a service configuration currently used by container shipping companies, with goods moving between different merchants and trading cities. |
| While Trans-Saharan Trade Routes only became prominent between the 8th and 17th centuries, historical records show that trade between North Africa and West Africa lies in prehistoric times. Historical records also show the role of the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes when Ancient Egyptians used obsidian imported from Senegal in West Africa, meaning crossing the Sahara more than 6,000 years ago and later when they traded with the Nubians, their southern neighbours, around 4000 BCE (Stupp and Sailus, 2023). |
| Despite these references, trade was conducted on a smaller scale. Accordingly, trade in the Sahara was relatively localised because pack animals like mules, horses, and donkeys were not biologically well-suited for the extremes of the Saharan environment. Trade consisted of exchanging agricultural products like rice, sorghum, and millet for the products of new technologies such as iron goods or rare commodities such as salt (Kordas et al., 2022a). |
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| Figure 2: Trans-Saharan Trade. And the African Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai |
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| Source: Kordas et al. (2022b) |
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| After the Ancient Egyptians and over the centuries, the routes were used by several different peoples, including the Phoenicians, Ancient Romans, the Arab empires of the Middle Ages, and the European colonial powers of the 19th and 20th centuries. They supported the rise of powerful African empires, such as the West African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai and facilitated the spread of Islamic culture and Arabic scholarship (see Figure 2). |
| The Ghana Empire (circa 6-13th century CE) controlled much of the trade in gold and salt, positioning itself as a critical intermediary between North African traders and the sources of gold further south. The Mali Empire (circa 1240-1645 CE) reached its height under Emperor Mansa Musa, ruler of the Kingdom of Mali, from 1312 CE to 1337 CE when its capital, Timbuktu, became an important cultural and learning centre. Following Mali’s decline, the Songhai Empire (circa 15-16th century CE) rose to control the trans-Saharan trade. Its capital, Gao, became a significant trade hub even though Timbuktu remained a prosperous centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. For these reasons, learning about the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes is fundamental to understanding African civilisations’ historical and economic dynamics. |
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2. The Trans-Saharan Trade Routes |
| The Saharan trade routes circa 1400 during the Mali Empire can be seen in Figure 3. Key trade routes within the Trans-Saharan network included the Western Route, running from Morocco through the Sahara to the Ghana Empire, later extending to Mali and Songhai, the Central Routes, linking North African cities like Tripoli and Ghadames to Niger and Mali; and the Eastern Route connecting Egypt to Lake Chad, incorporating the mighty Kanem-Bornu Empire. |
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| Figure 3: The Saharan Trade Routes Circa 1400 |
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| Source: Wikipedia (2024) |
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| As a trade network, the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes facilitated the movement of diverse goods across the Sahara along their southbound and northbound directions, connecting cities such as Timbuktu, Gao, Taghaza and Sijilmasa. Timbuktu, located near the Niger River, was a hub of trade, scholarship, and culture. Gao, the capital of the Songhai Empire along the Niger River, was a vital link in trade networks hosting vibrant markets that connected traders from the interior to North Africa. Sijilmasa and Taghaza were held by Berber confederations in the Sahara. Taghaza was a prominent trading post that housed the most productive salt mines during the medieval period. For instance, Taghaza was the primary Sudanese source of salt up to the 16th century CE (Cartwright, 2019). Sijilmasawas, a medieval Moroccan city, was one of the most important trade centres in the Maghreb during the Middle Ages. |
Other notable trade centres included Walata, Kumbi Saleh, and Agadez, which functioned as staging points for caravans on their long journeys across the desert, providing supplies and access to regional markets. Walata, located on the southern edge of the Sahara in present-day Mauritania, served as a critical stopping point for caravans travelling between the Saharan north and the rich trading regions of the Sahel and West Africa. Kumbi Saleh, situated at a strategic location near the Senegal and Niger River valleys, often considered the capital of the Ghana Empire, was one of the most important trade centres in West Africa. Finally, along a critical trade path between North Africa and the Lake Chad region, Agadez emerged as a key trade centre on the Central Trans-Saharan route, serving as a gateway for goods moving from Central and West Africa to the Mediterranean coast. |
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3. Goods Traded |
| Goods traded southbound and northbound along the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes varied; Figure 4 highlights their location. From the Mediterranean and North Africa, the Routes witnessed the movement of salt, textiles, metal goods, horses, and luxury items like glass and ceramics. In the opposite direction from Sub-Saharan Africa, goods included gold, ivory, kola nuts, enslaved people, and leather goods. Out of these, gold, salt, ivory, and kola nuts played significant roles; moreover, gold and salt would expand the trade along the Trans-Saharan trade routes. |
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| Figure 4: Location of Goods Along the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes |
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| Source: Rwanda Basic Education Board (2024) |
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| Gold originated from the West African mines, especially around the Niger River, was traded in cities like Cairo, Tunis, and Constantinople, and supplied the European civilisations, including the Mediterranean ones, making the empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai incredibly wealthy. Salt, essential for preserving food in warmer climates, was precious in West Africa, where it was scarce. Salt was mined from deposits in Taghaza, currently located in the northern region of Mali and other northern centres. Its production and trade would dominate West African economies throughout the 2nd millennium CE despite sources and trade centres constantly changing hands as empires rose and fell (Cartwright, 2019). Ivory was in high demand in Europe and the Middle East, where it was used for luxury goods and art. Finally, valued for their stimulating properties, kola nuts were traded extensively in northern markets. |
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4. Camels and the Role of Caravans |
| In the absence of transport modes as they are known today, camels, often called the “ships of the desert” (Sherry, 2024), carried these goods. They became an integral element of the Trans-Saharan trade, which is why they were also known as “camel caravans”. Originating from Arabia and brought to Africa by Arab traders, camels were better suited than horses or donkeys for desert travel. They could withstand extreme temperatures, carry heavy loads, travel long distances without water, and endure the harsh desert climate, making them ideal for crossing the Sahara. |
From logistics and transport capacity perspectives, over long distances, a single camel crossing the Sahara could carry around 180 kgs of traded goods; conversely, over shorter distances, a single camel could carry up to 540 kgs (Sherry, 2024). For instance, salt was transported via camel caravans and by boat along such rivers as the Niger and Senegal in large rectangular slabs directly out of the desert floor. Each camel carried two blocks weighing up to 90 kilos (200 lbs) each (Cartwright, 2019); therefore, depending on the caravan size, the amount of salt transported varied. Still, what is interesting to learn is that the charged transport fee accounted for almost 80% of the salt’s value (Messier and Miller, 2015). Therefore, it is no surprise that salt was used as currency in various West African regions. |
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| Figure 5: Salt Slabs on Sale at a Market in Timbuktu, Mali |
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| Source: Rwanda Basic Education Board (2024) |
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| Under such a harsh environment, caravans engaged in the movement of goods across the Sahara had to be carefully planned. From a logistics perspective, the highly paid nomadic North African Berber people, acting as middlemen, played critical roles in guiding and protecting the caravans, i.e. groups of merchants and their cargo, travelling together for safety and efficiency. Berbers were famous for knowing the location of oases and other water sources and the best routes to overcome the challenging terrain features, relying on stars and unique desert landmarks. Like today, geography knowledge played an essential role in the Trans-Saharan trade. For these reasons, it was not uncommon that caravans were made up of thousands of camels to ensure enough provisions for the journey while providing security since attacks were common in the vast desert. |
| Caravans varied in size. On average, a camel caravan would total 1,000 camels, although they could be as small as 500 and as large as 12,000. In the thirteenth century, caravans crossing the Sahara accounted for 5,000-10,000 camels (Sherry, 2024). According to historical records, the first caravans are likely to have crossed the western Sahara in the 3rd century CE, if not earlier. However, the regular organisation of camel caravans to transport goods and people would only take off from the 9th to 12th century CE (Cartwright, 2019). Crossing the Sahara would last around 70 days, during which time the daily distance travelled amounted to 20 miles (Sherry, 2024). |
| With the introduction of camels in the Sahara, two innovations took place. The first innovation of a more technological nature concerns the introduction of camel saddles invented by the North African Tuareg people, allowing a better carriage of people and goods. The second innovation of a more logistical nature concerns the establishment of caravanserais, i.e. inns or stopping points, as alternatives to oasis towns, where travelling merchants could stop, rest, and obtain food and water across the trans-Saharan network. |
The Northern and Western African regions witnessed an economic expansion. The wealth generated by the trade routes had a long-lasting impact on the African economy, resulting in the emergence of a powerful merchant class. Moreover, it allowed the African empires to flourish by building infrastructures such as mosques, schools, and libraries, contributing to social development or grand buildings and maintaining standing armies. Simultaneously, many regions along the Trans-Saharan trade routes benefitted from political stability, providing a secure environment where trade flourished. |
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5. The Decline of the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes |
| The decline of the Trans-Saharan Trade Routes began in the 16th century after the Portuguese explorers had opened up sea routes for trade between Europe and West Africa and later between Europe and India, providing a faster and safer alternative to Trans-Saharan routes. The shift to coastal trade routes weakened the economic relevance of the Saharan caravan routes, which was further aggravated by the establishment of European trading bases and cheap European goods, the North African political changes and the instability of the Saharan region. Other factors contributing to this decline include the abolishment of the slave trade, which for many years sustained the Trans-Saharan Trade, the discovery of gold in other parts of the globe, the downfall of some West African empires and the high taxation imposed on the traders in West Africa among others (Rwanda Basic Education Board, 2024). However, some caravan trade continued into the 19th century. |
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References |
| Aa77zz (2019). Trans-Saharan Trade Routes. World History Encyclopedia, World History Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10148/trans-saharan-trade-routes/ [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Cartwright, M. (2019). The Salt Trade of Ancient West Africa. World History Encyclopedia, World History Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1342/the-salt-trade-of-ancient-west-africa/ [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Kordas, A., Lynch, R. J., Nelson, B. and Tatlock, J. (2022a). The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade. World History, Volume 2: from 1400. Retrieve from https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-2/pages/3-4-the-trans-saharan-slave-trade [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Kordas, A., Lynch, R. J., Nelson, B. and Tatlock, J. (2022b). The Roots of African Trade. World History, Volume 2: from 1400. Retrieve from https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-2/pages/3-1-the-roots-of-african-trade [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Messier, R. A. and Miller, J. A. (2015). The Last Civilized Place: Sijilmasa and its Saharan Destiny. Austin: University of Texas Press. |
| National Geographic Society (2023). Mansa Musa (Musa I of Mali). National Geographic Society. Retrieved from https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mansa-musa-musa-i-mali/ [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Rwanda Basic Education Board (2024). Unit 8: TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE. Rwanda Basic Education Board. Retrieved from https://elearning.reb.rw/course/view.php?id=635§ion=8 [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
Sherry, B. (2024). Trans-Saharan Trade Routes. OER Project. Retrieved from https://www.oerproject.com/OER-Materials/OER-Media/HTML-Articles/Origins/Unit6/Trans-Saharan-Trade-Routes/1160L [accessed 12 November 2024].
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| Stupp, W. and Sailus, C. (2023). Trans Saharan Trade | Definition, Routes & Effect. Study.com. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/trans-saharan-trade-west-african-sudanic-states.html [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Taylor, R. (2019). Salt Slabs, Timbuktu. World History Encyclopedia, World History Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10161/salt-slabs-timbuktu/ [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
| Wikipedia (2024). Trans-Saharan trade. Black History Heros. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade [accessed 12 November 2024]. |
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Note |
| This text was simultaneously published on LinkedIn. |
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About the Author |
| Ana Casaca was, first and foremost, a Deck Officer responsible for navigational watches. Being at sea gave her a thorough perspective of the operational side of the shipping industry. She holds a B.Sc. (Honours) in Management and Maritime Technologies from Escola Nautica Infante D. Henrique (Portuguese Nautical school), an MSc in International Logistics from the University of Plymouth and a PhD in International Transport/Logistics from the University of Wales-Cardiff. Next, she became an Experienced Lecturer, Researcher and Peer Reviewer in Maritime Economics and Logistics. In between, numerous functions and roles. For 20 years, she has been an External Expert for the European Commission, evaluating R&D/CEF proposals within the scope of maritime transport. In parallel, she has carried out other projects. She has delivered training and has been invited, since 2002, to peer review academic papers submitted to well-known international Journals. She is the author of several research papers published in well-known academic journals and member of some journals’ editorial boards, namely, Maritime Business Review Associate Editor, Journal of International Logistics Editorial Board Member, Universal Journal of Management Editorial Board Member, Frontiers in Future Transportation Review Editor, and Journal of Shipping and Trade Guest Editor. She is also the founder and owner of ‘World of Shipping Portugal’ a website initiative established in 2018 focused on maritime economics. In addition, she is a Member of the Research Centre on Modelling and Optimisation of Multifunctional Systems (CIMOSM, ISEL), Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers (ICS) and Member of the International Association of Maritime Economists (IAME). Apart from Shipping, she likes Travelling, Sewing and Arts. All these elements bring her on the quest for creativity, always with the expectation of doing something extraordinary! |
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